Biofeedback Art Meditation to Strengthen Sense‑Making for Global Challenges
Krisztián Hofstädter
University of York; University of Essex
Cite this Article
Hofstädter, K. (2025). Biofeedback Art Meditation to Strengthen Sense‑Making for Global Challenges. p-e-r-f-o-r-m-a-n-c-e, 8.
Abstract
Environmental awareness and social justice are pressing global challenges. To address them, individuals and communities need better sense-making. Sense-making can be improved by first recognizing our own biases and how we can distort information. One way to uncover these distortions is to alter our state of mind through meditation. Psychedelics can also produce insights, but meditation is safer. Because meditation can be difficult to induce and sustain altered states, biofeedback art can support the process and help access and implement the insights discovered. In this paper, I first introduce a theoretical framework, then describe how I used brain computer music interfacing (BCMI) — a specific type of biofeedback art — to support meditation, and at the end outline my plan to run cohorts in which participants explore biofeedback art to do the same. The outputs of these cohorts would be shared publicly to create a ripple effect in society with the ultimate aim to bring more people into conversations about how meditation can benefit our collective responses to global challenges.
Keywords
altered states, auditory entrainment, biofeedback art, brain-computer music interfacing, global challenges, meditation, neurofeedback, non-ordinary reality, sense-making
1. Introduction
1.1 How can better sense-making address global challenges?
Promoting environmental awareness and social justice are pressing global issues that require innovative solutions. According to social philosopher Daniel Schmachtenberger (2019), our broken information ecology and information warfare highlight our challenges of recognizing facts in a landscape where information may be distorted or manipulated for various reasons. He suggests that we need to learn to become more skeptical about information such as news, as they often engage in narrative warfare rather than providing objective facts. Reasons can be linked to politics, religion and market dynamics where information is strategically controlled to influence our opinions and behaviors through channels such as broadcast, social media, in-person and academic.
Developing our sense-making can help us better understand how and why information is distorted by others or ourselves. From there, we can gain a higher-order clarity that enables more informed decision-making for ourselves and others. To achieve this, it is crucial to first recognize how and why we might distort information ourselves through our biases. This is important, as biases can shape the very foundations of our instincts, habits, perspectives, and worldviews.
A good starting point to understand our biases is the work of neuroscientist Anil Seth (2015; 2017), who says that our experience of reality is fundamentally a “controlled hallucination” — a Bayesian brain-generated best guess of what is happening, informed by both sensory input e.g. what we see and hear (bottom-up) and prior beliefs (top-down) e.g. what we already decided to be true or false. By remaining aware that our perception of reality is partly shaped by our prior beliefs — which may be biased — we can better understand the complexities of how we communicate with others and ourselves. This awareness is critical for navigating the challenges of information distortion.
1.2 How do altered states support sense-making?
Just as books or films enable us to gain insight into our moral values through empathetic immersion with fictional characters, meditation can also facilitate a similar, if not even deeper, self-discovery. This is because the characters and environments in our meditative states are based more on our own experiences rather than someone else’s. My ease with immersing myself in others’ stories stems from them being carefully crafted. For instance, in literature, film, and theatre, stories are expertly woven together by skilled storytellers who have taken the time to develop relatable characters, exciting plots, and thought-provoking themes. As a participant, I can rely on them to guide me through the narrative, providing context, foreshadowing, and emotional resonance that makes it easy for me to connect with their stories. In contrast, I don’t have a screenwriter or director carefully shaping my own life experiences into a coherent narrative. I need to analyze my own drama. It is challenging to recognize patterns, themes, and meanings, let alone integrate them into a story that can give me some kind of deep meaning and agency with my own and social matters.
This sense‑making process is what altered states can streamline. In an altered state we can slow down or step outside our everyday predictions – for example, mindfulness meditation reduces intergroup bias (e.g. Oyler et al. (2021)) while psychedelic substances can unmask cognitive biases linked to our beliefs (e.g. Nayak et al. (2022)). Both meditation and psychedelics can enhance our sense‑making, and when used together they can produce synergistic effects (e.g. Holas and Kamińska (2023)). However, psychedelics require carefully controlled conditions because they can be very strong, remain in the body for hours and raise legal issues. In contrast, meditation has an established safety record, making it safer for most individuals (e.g. Letheby (2022)). Even for those who ultimately choose to use psychedelics, it is advisable to first cultivate meditation skills that can enable the mental control needed to integrate intense experiences.
1.3 How does BCMI support meditation?
Although interest in meditation has risen in recent decades, many people still find it challenging — whether due to a lack of time, a general lack of motivation, or other obstacles (Brandmeyer and Delorme, 2013). This article explores how brain-computer music interfacing (BCMI) — a type of biofeedback art (Nijholt, 2019) — can support meditation practices and offer a personalizable and non-pharmacological approach to accessing altered states without the risks and legal constraints associated with psychedelics.
The following sections first introduce the practice of meditation, specifically focusing on how it can help access an altered state I have primarily been interested in, a visionary state accessed with eyes closed. The next sections explore how I used BCMI to access this state in an artistic public performance setting. Finally, as collaborative exploration is central to my next steps, I outline my plan to work with cohorts where individuals can build their own biofeedback art projects to refine their meditation practices, share insights and collectively navigate the complexities of enhanced sense-making and its ethical implications.
2. Meditation
2.1 Altered States
Meditation is a practice that involves focusing one’s attention to achieve various physical and mental changes. Its methods include techniques like breath-work (Bing-Canar, Pizzuto and Compton, 2016), visualization (Margolin, Pierce and Wiley, 2011), and repetitive mantras (Lynch et al., 2018). While its origins are unclear, meditation likely emerged from religious and spiritual practices in ancient civilizations (Farias, Brazier and Lalljee, 2021), with influential figures like Buddha, Lao-Tze, and Dosho promoting its use in the East. Meditation practices have been present in other cultures, including Judaism (Storedalen, 2013), Islam (Jamal, 2013), and Christianity (Casiday, 2013), but it wasn’t until recent translations of Eastern texts became available that it gained widespread popularity in the West e.g. through mindfulness meditation (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). As a result, meditation has evolved over time, reflecting changes in cultural and religious practices (Bronkhorst, 2014). In recent decades, research has shown meditation to have positive effects on overall well-being (Heppner and Shirk, 2018) and serious health issues (Grossman et al., 2004; Rubia, 2009; Kwon et al., 2021; May and Maurin, 2021), making it an increasingly important area of study.
Similarly to Washburn (1978), I classify how attention is used in meditation as either concentrative (active, focused attention on a single object) or receptive (passive, open awareness of multiple stimuli).
Visual interpretation of concentrative (left) and receptive (right) meditation. The color blue indicates the object of focus.
The way one’s perception of reality shifts during meditation I often conceptualize on a spectrum. This spectrum spans from ordinary reality (OR) — our baseline waking consciousness — to augmented reality (AR), where perception is altered (e.g., heightened and refined), and finally to non-ordinary reality (NOR), a distinct realm similar to a dream.
[OR]──────────────[AR]───────────────[NOR]
To clarify, OR is what we experience with our standard state of awareness, grounded in immediate sensory input and habitual thought patterns. AR represents an alteration of our OR, often accessed through practices like eyes-open mindfulness meditation. In contrast, NOR is accessible via a more profoundly altered state. NOR is a visionary state that transcends our normal, everyday perception and is often accessed through practices such as shamanic journeying with eyes closed. Both AR and NOR can also be accessed using psychedelic substances.
2.2 Non-Ordinary Reality (NOR)
In Journeys Around the Secret Place (Hofstädter, 2023), I outline how my work with altered states began over two decades ago when I decided to explore states induced by psychedelics but without using psychedelics. Through experimenting with visual art, music and meditation, I gained a basic understanding on psychologically induced altered states of consciousness (ASC)[1], which understanding I have been refining in my academic studies with BCMI.
During my doctoral research, the specific ASC that caught my attention is what Rock and Krippner (2011) call the shamanic state of consciousness (SSC). SSC is a hypnagogic state which meditation practitioners can access with following a shamanic methods called shamanic journeying. It is the SSC what Michael Harner (2013) wrote can help access the NOR. NOR is a visionary reality, similar to the world of our dreams while sleeping, where conventional perceptions and constraints are transcended. Experiences in the NOR made me reexamine problems from new perspectives, revealing insights that have had a lasting impact on my philosophy as well as reassure me that these deeply altered states can certainly be accessed without psychedelics.
2.3 Psychedelics vs Meditation
Notable authors who explored various methods to access ASCs emphasized the importance of practices like meditation besides the use of psychedelics. Aldous Huxley, in his last book Island (1962) compares the use of the moksha-medicine (a psychedelic) to a banquet. He suggests that while it offers a rich experience, it cannot replace the daily practice of meditation, which he likens to cooking one’s own dinner. This perspective aligns with Alan Watts’s (1970) famous saying ‘… psychedelic experience is only a glimpse of genuine mystical insight, but a glimpse which can be matured and deepened by the various ways of meditation …’. Jim Dekorne, best known for his influential book Psychedelic Shamanism (1994), also echoes this teaching in his later works linking Jungian psychology, shamanism and Gnosticism (2010) and more recent, ongoing work with the Chinese I-Ching. Even controversial figures like Carlos Castaneda (1998) transitioned from using drugs to inducing ASCs without them in his stories about his apprenticeship with Yaqui Indian sorcerers. Carl Jung, Robert Monroe, and Stanislav Grof, to name a few, are also known to have accessed and taught others to access ASC without the use of psychedelics. Jung, a prominent psychoanalyst, accessed deeper layers of the subconscious through techniques like active imagination (Chodorow and Jung, 2015). Monroe developed technologies based on binaural beats to induce ASCs (Russell, 2007). Grof, initially a strong proponent of the use of LSD for psychotherapy, transitioned to developing powerful non-drug alternatives like Holotropic Breathwork when restrictions were placed on the use of LSD (Rhinewine and Williams, 2007).
While meditation has been utilized in psychedelic-assisted therapy (Griffiths et al., 2017; Gandy, 2022), research on the overlap between ASCs accessed with or without psychedelic substances appears limited (Radakovic et al., 2022). While it is relatively easy to induce an ASC with psychedelics, it is not safe unless the set and setting are well thought through. Also, psychedelics in most countries are illegal. On the other hand, meditation can be difficult. It requires sustained and consistent effort over time before it can induce an ASC strong enough to access NOR. Furthermore, as we ride the second wave of the psychedelic renaissance, it’s essential to avoid the pitfalls presented by medicalization and monetization (Miceli McMillan, 2021; Devenot, Conner and Doyle, 2022; Osterhold and Fernandes‐Osterhold, 2023), which could undermine the very purpose of these experiences: gaining a sense of autonomy through self-discovery and personal growth.
Having established some theoretical foundations, I now describe my latest BCMI system — specifically developed to support meditation practices that help access SSC.
3. BCMI System as a Non-Pharmacological Tool to Access Altered States
To help access SSC, the visionary altered state, my last BCMI system used neurofeedback and auditory rhythmic entrainment (ARE). The following sections outline both methods and briefly highlight that not all shamanic practices have used psychedelics to access an altered state.
3.1 Entrainment methods
3.1.1 Neurofeedback
Brain-computer interfacing (BCI) facilitates instantaneous, non-muscular communication between the human brain and machines. The nature of the information received and how it’s processed on both sides in this continuous interaction loop is crucial for the effectiveness of BCI applications (Daly et al., 2014). BCI systems, composed of hardware and software, are typically designed for specific biomedical and non-biomedical applications. Biomedical applications diagnose and access lost central nervous system functions and enhance cognitive abilities. Non-biomedical applications are often recreational, used in gaming and artistic performances, but also in smart-home settings and industries for safety enhancement (Mridha et al., 2021).
Neurofeedback training (NFT) is a specific biofeedback practice where BCI systems provide feedback on neurological activity for a specified duration and regularity. The real-time mapping of classified brain activity is referred to as the ‘neurofeedback protocol’. NFT sessions typically last 20-30 minutes and are held in 10-20 sessions. The efficacy of NFT and other BCI applications hinge on neuroplasticity, which is the brain’s ability to functionally modify its neural networks by altering synaptic connections and structurally by changing neural pathways (Costandi, 2016). Neuroplastic changes are not limited to youth; adults can acquire new skills too. Although it is good to remember that retaining skills — such as those gained through meditation — requires ongoing practice (Dorjee, 2017, p.28).
NFT is employed as a method for self-regulating brain activity in both clinical and non-clinical settings. In clinical settings, it assists in managing clinically significant conditions such as attention deficit disorders, anxiety, autism, chronic pain, depression, epilepsy, substance abuse, and post-traumatic stress disorder. In non-clinical settings, NFT enhances abilities of healthy individuals in sports, mood enhancement, cognitive improvement, and performing arts. The more recently established NeuroMeditation Institute developed a program linking neurofeedback to meditation and ASC. Their protocols train different types of meditation practices such as focus, thoughtless and thoughtful mindfulness, compassion and have been proposed to be used in psychedelic-assisted therapy too (Tarrant, 2017).
3.1.2 Auditory Rhythmic Entrainment (ARE)
For many, the mention of psychedelics recalls images of hippies and the first wave of psychedelic research, or illegal party drugs in the subsequent periods and, for those more tuned in, the current second wave of the psychedelic renaissance (Doblin et al, 2019). However, the history of the use of psychedelics likely goes back to the first shamans, the evolution of world religions (Winkelman, 2019) and our species (Samorini, 2019). Today, shamanic practice is generally understood as comprising two strands: (1) Traditional shamanism – a profound spiritual calling that involves rigorous initiation and lineage transmission. (2) Core shamanism – an adaptation of traditional techniques based on Harner (2013)’s cross‑cultural research, which preserves core elements while stripping away culture‑specific details to make the practice accessible to contemporary practitioners. Although core shamanism shares a unified framework, geographic variations persist. For example, the shamanic techniques used in South America differ from those practiced in Siberia.
Shamanism involves the use of shamanic journeying through an altered state, the SSC. In SSC, shamans and practitioners control out-of-body experiences to freely explore OR and NOR. They interact with the spiritual inhabitants of these realms by climbing up or down on the ‘shamanic tree’.
Prayer (2005). My oil painting depicting meditation with a shamanic tree.
Frecska, Hoppál and Luna (2016) describe SSC as an alternative information source about the environment. It is accessed through a ‘nonlocal-intuitive’ channel following a shift in the journeyer’s consciousness using psychedelics or meditation techniques. Flor-Henry, Shapiro and Sombrun (2017) categorize SSC as a unique subset of ASCs. This state is characterized by lucid yet limited awareness of physical surroundings, enhanced inner imagery, altered somatosensory processing, transformed self-perception, and a spiritual journey experience. The aim is to gather necessary information for resolving specific personal or societal issues. While psychedelic substances are believed to have significantly contributed to the development of shamanism (Walsh, 2014), numerous shamanic practices access NOR without the use of psychedelics (Fachner, 2006), for instance, in the Hungarian Táltos tradition (Pócs, 2018) and core shamanism (Harner, 2013).
Shamanic journeying often involves repetitive sensory stimulation, such as drumming. The rhythm and tempo of this stimulation can differ based on the tradition. For example, in core shamanic practices, the rhythm and tempo of the drumming remain constant during entrainment, but they may vary in other shamanic traditions. The tempo of drumming is believed to entrain brainwaves (Jovanov and Maxfield, 2011). In my literature review, I found Strong’s (2010) approach to entrainment with drumming the most inspiring. It reflects the monotonous entrainment experienced in shamanic drumming and binaural beats however it is more sophisticated as it pairs slower brainwaves with simpler, and faster ones with complex rhythms. He asserts that each of his rhythms used can elicit a different response in the listener.
A BCMI system developed during my PhD was built in SuperCollider, a textual coding environment for musicians and sound engineers. It interfaces with a research‑grade OpenBCI Cyton board and an EEG cap that can record activity across the scalp. To demonstrate this system’s suitability to support meditation, I evaluated it in NFT and public performance settings. The NFT setting only used neurofeedback and ARE to help two trainees deepen their meditation; the live performance featured additional elements to help create an immersive musical experience for an audience. In the following section I describe how I customized these elements for a public performance.
3.2 Artistic Dimensions of BCMI
For a 2019 Cambridge Festival of Ideas performance, I setup my BCMI with ARE generating drumming to be gradually decreasing in tempo and rhythmic complexity, and the neurofeedback protocol to trigger sounds when theta‑band activity was strong. The performance also featured live improvised frame drumming, serving as a symbolic representation of my meditation progress and as the sound source for an electro‑acoustic layer using granular synthesis and delay effects. The entire soundtrack was spatialized in 4.0 surround, in which the electro‑acoustic layer was moved between four speakers using theta‑coherence measurements from the brain data. All of this resulted in a rich, multilayered sonic environment aiming to encourage audience immersion. I was hoping that I could help them access SSC.
The audience was invited to either meditate with eyes closed or observe my visualized brain data on a big screen behind me. Although during this performance I didn’t manage to get into NOR (the VR‑like non‑local environment) – probably because I was stressing too much about how many technical things could go wrong – the performance was successful. Most of the audience said they were deeply relaxed and some even experienced visuals which I asked them to try and reproduce in drawings.
Drawings by the audience after the performance.
The performance demonstrated that BCMI can be used to create contemporary art by blending real‑time brain data sonification, live improvisation, and surround spatialization with the primary goal of drawing people into a meditative experience and discussions associated with this experience. I invite you to have a look at the embedded video archiving my performance and when convenient, revisit this video and meditate with eyes closed to see whether you can use it to induce an altered state.[2]
4. Conclusion: A Vision for the Future
I am currently working on bringing together a diverse community of researchers, artists, psychonauts, and meditation practitioners who can collectively explore how accessible and safe alternatives to psychedelics can facilitate access to ASCs to support sensemaking. This group eventually should act as the advisory board for a project that could empower participants to deepen self‑awareness through bio-guided meditation and creative expression and to translate insights into tangible social change.
4.1 Three‑Year Timeline
I plan to unfold the project over three years, with a 1-year foundational set‑up and a 2-year community engagement. To be more specific, year 1 would be spent on finalizing the ecosystem of stakeholders. During this period, a 10‑week module syllabus would be drafted and refined via a literature review and board feedback. Parallel to this, a dedicated project website would be launched to centralize information, recruit participants, and provide ongoing communication through a blog, a podcast and a newsletter. Years 2–3 would bring the module into full operation. I envision each academic year to host two 10‑week cohorts (Spring and Autumn terms), with a single 3‑hour session per week. The first half of each term would consist of focused lectures — covering topics such as the global polycrisis, contemplative pedagogy, the history of altered states and biofeedback‑art — while the latter half would transition to hands‑on practice, allowing participants to develop their own personalized entrainment tools and share progress weekly. At the end of each 10‑week block, participants would present their work at a one‑day exhibition/symposium for feedback from peers and the public. After the completion of the fourth cohort (two modules per year for two years), the project would conclude in a two‑day conference. All alumni would be invited to present, exhibit, or perform as part of an academic program, and a formal call for papers would open to scholars and industry partners. The conference would serve both as a showcase of the cumulative learning and as a platform for disseminating the project’s outcomes.
Below are the current research questions (RQ) for this proposed ‘biofeedback meditation art’ project:
RQ1: How do artistic expressions and personal insights gained from meditative states influence self-awareness, and what are the most effective entrainment methods to support this feedback loop? (To be measured by standardized surveys, interviews, and possibly brain data analysis.)
RQ2: What role do artistic performances and exhibitions play in amplifying the positive impact of meditative states on self-awareness, and how can we optimize these creative expressions to create a ripple effect of positive change in society? (To be measured by post-performance/exhibition surveys or focus groups.)
4.2 BCMI Development
Since my key interest within the domain of biofeedback art is BCMI, part of the module would build upon my doctoral research by further developing my BCMI system to help individuals personalize entrainment and sonification methods with which they can induce and maintain the ASC they are most interested in. These techniques could include the methods I have been working with (real-time [online] neurofeedback and ARE, tools for analyzing recorded brain data) and go beyond i.e. people should look into developing their own methods. By refining our methods together with the community, we could support people who want to explore the vast potential of their minds in a safe, controlled, and accessible manner.
Since I would be an active member of this cohort, not only a facilitator, my personal objectives linked to my BCMI system would be to make it compatible with various BCI hardware (e.g. NeuroSky, Muse and Emotiv headsets) to increase affordability and compactness, to experiment with different ARE and neurofeedback settings in order to optimize the experience and to research the importance of aesthetics in neurofeedback reward sounds.
4.3 Impact
The project’s influence could contribute knowledge to several domains. For academia it could generate literature that inform emerging practices in art therapy, mindfulness programmes and creative‑technology ventures, and other projects looking into safe, non‑substance‑based induction of altered states. Through the project’s website and podcast, we could extend our reach beyond academia into communities linked to secular or religious meditation practices. Looking ahead, the project could become a blueprint for a one-term university module at partnering universities, ensuring legacy and scalability.
By harnessing the transformative potential of meditation, the project aims to bridge the gap between individual and global challenges by developing personalized entrainment methods that cultivate self-awareness, empathy, and agency. By empowering individuals to recognize their unique role in addressing personal and social issues, my research aims to create a virtuous cycle of progress, ultimately contributing to more people not only being aware of our social and environmental issues but also actively addressing them.
My goal is not only to facilitate ASC experiences but also to create an environment for integrating insights derived from these experiences. By turning every cohort’s final exhibition into a public showcase, we could transform meditation into an accessible, performative experience that attracts and educates the public — effectively advertising the benefits of contemplative education.
4.4 Ethics of Biofeedback-Induced ASCs
While bio-feedback art can offer a legal, non‑substance approach, it still raises several ethical questions. Participants have to clearly understand how their bio-signals and other personal data are recorded, stored and potentially shared. Privacy and data‑ownership policies must be transparent. The cultural references to traditions linked to meditation also have to be respected and used carefully. We also have to screen participants to make sure they are mentally fit for the project. Together with the advisory board, we must ensure that all ethical considerations are addressed and that the technologies developed remain means for personal growth rather than exploitation.
4.5 Summary and Opportunities
This project aims to demonstrate that meditative states can be taught, supported, and measured with biofeedback, and amplified through artistic performance, thereby providing a replicable framework for cultivating self‑awareness, empathy and collective sensemaking at scale. It offers a legal, non‑substance alternative for people drawn to psychedelics and perhaps a healthier option for those struggling with addiction. Music‑technology enthusiasts, video gamers, or simply innovation‑seekers may be attracted to biofeedback’s unique features, which in turn introduce them to the benefits of meditation. Religious organizations and those interested in secularized meditation could collaborate and share knowledge with the project and with one another. The project also offers academia and industry the knowledge and data needed to accelerate research on meditation and biofeedback interfaces. Finally, local workshops could yield performances that attract additional participants and generate conversations.
I am currently drafting grant applications that could fund this project, please get in touch if you are interested in collaborating.
If we’re not capable of listening to ourselves, how can we listen to another person? If we don’t know how to recognize our own suffering, it won’t be possible to bring peace and harmony into our relationships. ~ Thich Nhat Hanh, Reconciliation (2006)
Acknowledgement
I’d like to thank Fredrik Olofsson and Tony Steffert for their continued support in hardware, software and neurofeedback insights. I would also like to acknowledge the use of gpt-oss20bn (a large language model) in my local Ollama setup for grammar corrections, and readability improvements.
References
Bing-Canar, H., Pizzuto, J. and Compton, R.J., 2016. Mindfulness-of-breathing exercise modulates EEG alpha activity during cognitive performance. Psychophysiology, 53(9), pp.1366–1376. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12678.
Brandmeyer, T. and Delorme, A., 2013. Meditation and neurofeedback. Frontiers in Psychology, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00688.
Bronkhorst, J., 2014. Can there be a cultural history of meditation? With special reference to India. Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist Meditation. Cultural Histories, pp.27–40.
Casiday, A., 2013. Imageless prayer and imagistic meditation in orthodox Christianity. In: H. Eifring, ed. Meditation in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Bloomsbury. pp.173–188.
Castaneda, C., 1998. The teachings of don juan: A yaqui way of knowledge. Univ of California Press.
Chodorow, J. and Jung, C., 2015. Jung on active imagination.
Costandi, M., 2016. Neuroplasticity. MIT Press, London.
Daly, I., Williams, D., Hwang, F., Kirke, A., Malik, A., Roesch, E., Weaver, J., Miranda, E. and Nasuto, S.J., 2014. Investigating music tempo as a feedback mechanism for closed-loop BCI control. Brain-Computer Interfaces, 1(3-4), pp.158–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/2326263x.2014.979728.
DeKorne, J., 1994. Psychedelic shamanism: The cultivation, preparation, and shamanic use of psychotropic plants. Loompanics Unltd.
DeKorne, J., 2010. The cracking tower: A strategy for transcending 2012. North Atlantic Books.
Devenot, N., Conner, T. and Doyle, R., 2022. Dark side of the shroom: Erasing indigenous and counterculture wisdoms with psychedelic capitalism, and the open source alternative: A manifesto for psychonauts†. Anthropology of Consciousness, 33(2), pp.476–505. https://doi.org/10.1111/anoc.12154.
Doblin, R.E., Christiansen, M., Jerome, L. and Burge, B., 2019. The past and future of psychedelic science: An introduction to this issue. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 51(2), pp.93–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2019.1606472.
Dorjee, D., 2017. Neuroscience and psychology of meditation in everyday life: Searching for the essence of mind. Routledge.
Fachner, J., 2006. Music and altered states of consciousness: An overview. In: D.A. & J. Fachner, ed. Music and altered states – consciousness, transcendence, therapy and addictions. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. pp.15–50.
Farias, M., Brazier, D. and Lalljee, M., 2021. Introduction: Understanding and studying meditation. In: M. Farias, D. Brazier and M. Lalljee, eds. The oxford handbook of meditation. Oxford University Press. pp.1–17. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198808640.013.1.
Flor-Henry, P., Shapiro, Y. and Sombrun, C., 2017. Brain changes during a shamanic trance: Altered modes of consciousness, hemispheric laterality, and systemic psychobiology. Cogent Psychology, 4(1), p.1313522. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2017.1313522.
Frecska, E., Hoppál, M. and Luna, L.E., 2016. Nonlocality and the shamanic state of consciousness. NeuroQuantology, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.14704/nq.2016.14.2.934.
Gandy, S., 2022. Predictors and potentiators of psychedelic-occasioned mystical experiences. Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 6(1), pp.31–47. https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2022.00198.
Griffiths, R.R., Johnson, M.W., Richards, W.A., Richards, B.D., Jesse, R., MacLean, K.A., Barrett, F.S., Cosimano, M.P. and Klinedinst, M.A., 2017. Psilocybin-occasioned mystical-type experience in combination with meditation and other spiritual practices produces enduring positive changes in psychological functioning and in trait measures of prosocial attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 32(1), pp.49–69. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881117731279.
Grossman, P., Niemann, L., Schmidt, S. and Walach, H., 2004. Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57(1), pp.35–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-3999(03)00573-7.
Hanh, T.N., 2006. Reconciliation: Healing the inner child. Parallax Press.
Harner, M., 2013. Cave and cosmos: Shamanic encounters with another reality. North Atlantic Books.
Heppner, W.L. and Shirk, S.D., 2018. Mindful moments: A review of brief, low-intensity mindfulness meditation and induced mindful states. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 12(12), p.e12424. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12424.
Hofstädter, K., 2022. Developing brain-computer music interfaces for meditation. PhD thesis. Cambridge School of Creative Industries, Anglia Ruskin University.
Hofstädter, K., 2023. Journeys around the secret place. In: G. Farrell, ed. Psychedelic music. Routledge.
Holas, P. and Kamińska, J., 2023. Mindfulness meditation and psychedelics: Potential synergies and commonalities. Pharmacological Reports, 75(6), pp.1398–1409.
Huxley, A., 1962. Island. Chatto & Windus.
Jamal, J.E., 2013. Sufi dhikr between meditation and prayer. In: H. Eifring, ed. Meditation in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Bloomsbury. pp.189–200.
Jovanov, E. and Maxfield, M.C., 2011. Entraining the brain and body. In: J. Berger and G. Turow, eds. Music, science and the rhythmic brain: Cultural and clinical implications. Routledge London. pp.31–48.
Kabat-Zinn, J., 2003. Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). Constructivism in the Human Sciences, 8(2), p.73.
Kwon, C.-Y., Lee, B., Chung, S.-Y. and Kim, J.W., 2021. Do cochrane reviews reflect the latest evidence on meditation and mindfulness-based interventions? A snapshot of the current evidence. EXPLORE, 17(6), pp.557–565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2020.05.016.
Letheby, C., 2022. Psychedelics and meditation: A neurophilosophical perspective. In: Routledge handbook on the philosophy of meditation. Routledge. pp.209–224.
Lynch, J., Prihodova, L., Dunne, P.J., McMahon, G., Carroll, A., Walsh, C. and White, B., 2018. Impact of mantra meditation on health and wellbeing: A systematic review protocol. European Journal of Integrative Medicine, 18, pp.30–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eujim.2018.01.008.
Margolin, I., Pierce, J. and Wiley, A., 2011. Wellness through a creative lens: Mediation and visualization. Journal of Religion And Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought, 30(3), pp.234–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/15426432.2011.587385.
May, A.D. and Maurin, E., 2021. Calm: A review of the mindful meditation app for use in clinical practice. Families, Systems & Health, 39(2), pp.398–400. https://doi.org/10.1037/fsh0000621.
Miceli McMillan, R., 2021. Global bioethical challenges of medicalising psychedelics. Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 5(2), pp.57–64. https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2021.00188.
Mridha, M.F., Das, S.C., Kabir, M.M., Lima, A.A., Islam, Md.R. and Watanobe, Y., 2021. Brain-computer interface: Advancement and challenges. Sensors, 21(17), p.5746. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21175746.
Nayak, S.M., Singh, M., Yaden, D.B. and Griffiths, R.R., 2022. Belief changes associated with psychedelic use. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 37(1), pp.80–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/02698811221131989.
Nijholt, A., 2019. Brain art: Brain-computer interfaces for artistic expression. Springer International Publishing.
Osterhold, H.M. and Fernandes‐Osterhold, G., 2023. Chasing the numinous: Hungry ghosts in the shadow of the psychedelic renaissance. Journal of Analytical Psychology, 68(4), pp.638–664. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5922.12949.
Oyler, D.L., Price-Blackshear, M.A., Pratscher, S.D. and Bettencourt, B.A., 2021. Mindfulness and intergroup bias: A systematic review. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 25(4), pp.1107–1138. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220978694.
Pócs, É., 2018. The hungarian táltos and the shamanism of pagan hungarians. Questions and hypotheses. Acta Ethnographica Hungarica, 63(1), pp.149–196. https://doi.org/10.1556/022.2018.63.1.9.
Radakovic, C., Radakovic, R., Peryer, G. and Geere, J.-A., 2022. Psychedelics and mindfulness: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 6(2), pp.137–153. https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2022.00218.
Rankaduwa, S. and Owen, A.M., 2023. Psychedelics, entropic brain theory, and the taxonomy of conscious states: A summary of debates and perspectives. Neuroscience of Consciousness, 2023(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/nc/niad001.
Rhinewine, J.P. and Williams, O.J., 2007. Holotropic breathwork: The potential role of a prolonged, voluntary hyperventilation procedure as an adjunct to psychotherapy. The journal of alternative and complementary medicine, 13(7), pp.771–776.
Rock, Adam.J. and Krippner, S., 2011. Demystifying shamans and their world. A multidisciplinary study. Exeter: Imprint Academic.
Rubia, K., 2009. The neurobiology of meditation and its clinical effectiveness in psychiatric disorders. Biological Psychology, 82(1), pp.1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.04.003.
Russell, R., 2007. The journey of robert monroe: From out-of-body exporer to consciousness pioneer. Hampton Roads Publishing.
Samorini, G., 2019. The oldest archeological data evidencing the relationship of homo sapiens with psychoactive plants: A worldwide overview. Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 3(2), pp.63–80. https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2019.008.
Schmachtenberger, D., 2019. The war on sensemaking. Available at: https://civilizationemerging.com/media/rebel-wisdom-war-on-sensemaking.
Seth, A.K., 2015. The cybernetic Bayesian brain. Open MIND. https://doi.org/10.15502/9783958570108.
Seth, A.K., 2017. The neuroscience of consciousness. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xRel1JKOEbI.
Storedalen, T., 2013. Ancient Hebrew meditative recitation. In: H. Eifring, ed. Meditation in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Bloomsbury. pp.17–33.
Strong, J., 2010. A look at rhythmic entrainment intervention by its creator. In: K. Morris, ed. Insights into sensory issues for professionals: Answers to sensory challenges. Arlington, US: Future Horizons Incorporated.
Tarrant, J., 2017. Meditation interventions to rewire the brain: Integrating neuroscience strategies for ADHD, anxiety, depression & PTSD. PESI Publishing & Media.
Vaitl, D., Birbaumer, N., Gruzelier, J., Jamieson, G.A., Kotchoubey, B., Kübler, A., Lehmann, D., Miltner, W.H.R., Ott, U., Pütz, P., Sammer, G., Strauch, I., Strehl, U., Wackermann, J. and Weiss, T., 2005. Psychobiology of altered states of consciousness. Psychological Bulletin, 131(1), pp.98–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.98.
Walsh, R., 2014. The religious use of psychedelic experiences in shamanism and the question of the value and validity of such experiences. In: J.H. Ellens, ed. Seeking the sacred with psychoactive substances: Chemical paths to spirituality and to god. ABC-CLIO. pp.169–178.
Washburn, M., 1978. Observations relevant to a unified theory of meditation. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 10(1), pp.45–65.
Watts, A., 1970. The joyous cosmology: Adventures in the chemistry of consciousness. Pantheon Books.
Winkelman, M., 2019. Introduction: Evidence for entheogen use in prehistory and world religions. Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 3(2), pp.43–62. https://doi.org/10.1556/2054.2019.024.
Notes
[1] The five types of ASCs outlined by Vaitl et al. (2005) are (1) spontaneously occurring (e.g. during sleep, dreaming or near-death experiences); (2) physically or physiologically induced (e.g. by starvation, diet or sexual activity); (3) psychologically induced (e.g. by sensory deprivation, hypnosis, biofeedback, meditation or rhythm-induced trance); (4) disease-induced, (e.g. in psychotic disorders or epilepsy) and (5) pharmacologically induced (e.g. with psychedelic drugs). For a broader understanding of ASCs induced by psychedelics, I recommend the perspectives offered by Rankaduwa and Owen (2023), who highlight the entropic brain theory’s (EBT) insights into conscious states, including psychedelic states. The EBT proposes that psychedelics influence brain activity in terms of “brain entropy,” offering implications for current debates on consciousness research.
[2] A detailed report of this performance, including links to creative outputs e.g. the stereo and surround versions of the recorded audio, as well as versions of the recording enhanced with binaural beats, can be found in my thesis (2022), available at phd.krishofstadter.com.
I am Hungarian creative technologist working as a researcher, lecturer and artist in the UK. I currently research Enhancing Audio Description at the University of York and draft funding applications to help continue my work with biofeedback art interfaces to support sensemaking practices. After three years of teaching the Navigating the Digital World module at the University of Essex, I am now a visiting fellow there. More on https://krishofstadter.com.